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A town is a community of people ranging from a few hundred to several thousands (occasionally hundreds of thousands), although it may be applied loosely even to huge metropolitan areas. Usually, a "town" is thought of as larger than a village but smaller than a "city", though there are exceptions to this rule. The words "city" and "village" came into English from Latin via French. "Town" and "borough" (also "burrow", "burgh", "bury", etc.) are of native Germanic origin, from Old English burg, a fortified settlement, and tūn, an enclosed piece of land.[1]
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In Old English and Old Scots, "Town" (or "toun", "ton", etc.) originally meant a fortified municipality, whereas a borough was not fortified. But that distinction did not last long, and "Edina Burgh" or "Edinburgh" - modernly called a "city" - was a fortified "town" from its founding.
In modern American English, a town is usually a municipal corporation that is smaller than a city but larger than a village. In some cases, "town" is an alternate name for "city" or "village" (especially a larger village). Sometimes, the word "town" is short for "township." Some US states designate towns and townships as political subdivisions of Counties. In general, towns can be differentiated from townships, villages, or hamlets on the basis of their economic character, in that most of a town's population will tend to derive their living from manufacturing industry, commerce, and public service rather than primary industry such as agriculture or related activities.
A place's population size is not a reliable determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, a large village might contain several times as many people as a small town. In the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns.
The modern phenomenon of extensive suburban growth, satellite urban development, and migration of city-dwellers to villages have further complicated the definition of towns, creating communities urban in their economic and cultural characteristics but lacking other characteristics of urban localities.
Some forms of non-rural settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural, but have at best a questionable claim to be called a town.
The distinction between a town and a city similarly depends on the approach adopted: a city may strictly be an administrative entity which has been granted that designation by law, but in informal usage, the term is also used to denote an urban locality of a particular size or importance: whereas a medieval city may have possessed as few as 10,000 inhabitants, today some consider an urban place of fewer than 100,000 as a town, even though there are many officially designated cities that are very, very much smaller than that.
In Australia, the status of a town is formally applied in only a few states. Most states do define cities, and towns are commonly understood to be those centres of population not formally declared to be cities and usually with a population in excess of about 250 people.
The creation and delimitation of Local Government Areas is the responsibility of the state and territory Governments. In all states and the Northern Territory each incorporated area has an official status. The various LGA status types currently in use are -
In Austria designations are similar to those in southern Germany with a trichotomy in Gemeinde, Markt(gemeinde) and Stadt.
In Chile towns are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called “communes”. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and specific rules apply to the three main cities Paris, Lyon and Marseille. For historical reasons, six communes in the Meuse département still exist as independent entities despite having no inhabitant at all.
For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute (INSEE) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called “villes”. Smaller settlements are usually called “villages”. In any case, the French language does not commonly make a difference between towns and cities.
Germans do not, in general, differentiate between city and town. The German word for both is "Stadt" as it is in many other languages that do not make any difference between the Anglo-Saxon concepts. A town with more than 100,000 inhabitants is called a Großstadt, which is the most adequate equivalence for city. In Germany also the historical importance (many settlements became a Stadt by being awarded a Stadtrecht in medieval times), the centrality and the population density of an urban place might be taken as characteristics of a "city". The word for a village, as a smaller settlement, is Dorf.
In southern German states the word Markt or Marktflecken designates a town-like residential community between village and city.
The current local government organisation is subject to state law of a state and the related denomination of a specific settlement may differ from its common designation (e.g. Samtgemeinde - a Lower Saxony legal term for a group of villages (Dorf, pl. Dörfer) with common local government). Designations in different states are as diverse as for example in Australian States and Territories and differ from state to state.
In Hungary, a village can gain the status of "város" (town), if it meets a set of diverse conditions for quality of life and development of certain public services and utilities (e.g. having a local secondary school or installing full-area sewage collection pipe network). Every year the Minister of Internal Affairs selects candidates from a committee-screened list of applicants, whom the President of Republic usually affirms by issuing a bill of town's rank to them. Since being a town carries extra fiscal support from the government, many relatively small villages try to win the status of "városi rang" nowadays.
Before the fall of communism in 1990, Hungarian villages under 10,000 residents were not allowed to become towns. Recently some settlements as small as 2,500 souls have received the rank of town (e.g. Zalakaros or Gönc) and meeting the conditions of development are often disregarded to quickly elevate larger villages into towns. As of early 2007, there are 289 towns in Hungary, encompassing some 65% of the entire population.
Towns of more than 50,000 people are able to gain the status of "megyei jog" (town with the rights of a county), which allows them to maintain own courts and a higher degree of autonomy. As of early 2007, there are only 23 such towns in Hungary.[citation needed]
The expression "Town" in Ireland has a similar history as in England and Wales and is surrounded by a simililar penumbra of ambiguity. However it is used officially in several different contexts as follows
The Local Government act 2001 provides that from January 1, 2002 (section 10 subsection (3) Within the county in which they are situated and of which they form part, there continue to be such other local government areas as are set out in Schedule 6 which— (a) in the case of the areas set out in Chapter 1 of Part 1 of that Schedule, shall be known as boroughs, and (b) (b) in the case of the areas set out in Chapter 2 of Part 1 and Part 2 of that Schedule, shall be known as towns, and in this Act a reference to a town shall include a reference to a borough."'
These provisions effect the replacement of the boroughs, Towns and urban districts which existed before then. Similar reforms in the nomeclature of local authorities ( but not their functions) are effected by section 11 part 17 of the act includes provision (section 185(2)) Qualified electors of a town having a population of at least 7,500 as ascertained at the last preceding census or such other figure as the Minister may from time to time prescribe by regulations, and not having a town council, may make a proposal in accordance with paragraph (b) for the establishment of such a council and contains provisions enabling the establishment of new town councils and provisions enabling the dissolution of existing or new town councils in certain circumstances
The reference to town having a population of at least 7,500 as ascertained at the last preceding census hands much of the power relating to defining what is in fact a town over to the Central Statistics Office and their criteria are published as part of each census
Another reference to the Census and its role in determuining what is or is not a town for some administrative purpose is in the Planning and Development act 2000 (part II chapter I which provides for Local area plans)
A local area plan shall be made in respect of an area which— (i) is designated as a town in the most recent census of population, other than a town designated as a suburb or environs in that census, (ii) has a population in excess of 2,000, and (iii) is situated within the functional area of a planning authority which is a county council.
These are set out in full at http://www.cso.ie/census/documents/census_2006_Appendices.pdf
In short they speak of "towns with legally defined boundaries" ( ie those established by the Local Government Act 2001) and the remaining 664 as "census towns", defined by themselves since 1971 as a cluster of 50 or more occupied dwellings in which within a distrance of 800 metres there is a neucleus of 30 occupied houses on both sides of the road or twenty occupued houses on one side of the road there is also a 200 metre criterion for determining whether a house is part of a census town.
In India, under most state laws, no village or settlement can be classified as a town unless its population crosses 20,000 inhabitants. On the basis of population and other issues, the state government notifies a larger community (over 10,000) as a notified area, and its administration is under the locally elected notified area committee. A settlement over 20,000 population would be classified, with a charter from the state government as a town, with a town area committee. Some laws distinguish only towns and villages from each other, but by usage, settlement with larger populations, such as those having a municipal committee or municipal corporation would be called cities. The recent Census of India classified all settlements above 5000 population (subject to some other rules) as urban areas for the sake of census. [1]
In the Netherlands no distinction is made between "city" and "town"; both translate as "stad".
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between stad and non-stad parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places got "stadsrechten" (city rights) and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never got such rights. The contrastive word for a village as a smaller settlement is dorp.
Similarly to Germany, in Poland there is no official distinction between a city and a town. The word for both is miasto (as distinct from a village or wieś). Town status is conferred by administative decree – some settlements remain villages even though they have a larger population than many smaller towns. See List of cities and towns in Poland.
Unlike English, the Russian language does not distinguish the terms "city" and "town"—both are translated as "город" (gorod). Traditionally, the term "city" is applied to large metropolitan areas and the term "town"—to smaller urban localities.
Sweden cancelled the official legal term Town (in Swedish: Stad) in the year 1971. Only the word Municipality (in Swedish: Kommun. In US English approximately County) was used, making no legal difference between Stockholm and a countryside municipality. Before that there were a number of terms like "stad"/Town, "köping"/large village etc. The definition of Town (stad) was that it was given such a title. Since the 1980s some municipalities (13 out of 290), who were "stad" before 1971, again call themselves town (stad). This has no legal or administrative significance whatsoever, and the municipalities have to use the word "kommun" in laws. In other cases the seat of the municipality is called "town". There is no difference between city and town, both translates to "stad" in Swedish. The word "stad" is still in use in Sweden, referring to places who were "stad" before 1971.
In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a market or fair and therefore became a "market town". Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.
In modern usage the term town is used either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a Town Council, or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have the legal right to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a Town Council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest "towns" (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).
Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a "Town Council" or "Borough Council". In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town is the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).
Alternatively there are also "new towns" which were created during the 20th century, such as Basildon, Redditch and Telford. Milton Keynes was designed to be a "new city" but legally it is still a town despite its size.
Curiously some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. Shipston-on-Stour, Warwickshire) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. Kidlington, Oxfordshire).
The status of a city is reserved for places that have Letters Patent entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as Northampton) are legally boroughs but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as Ely or St David's for instance.
It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: Rochester (Kent) has been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 when the Medway district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official City status and it is now technically a town.
It is often thought that towns with bishops' seats rank automatically as cities: however, Chelmsford remains a town despite being the seat of the diocese of Chelmsford. St. Asaph, which is the seat of the diocese of St Asaph, is another such town. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established Church of England, and the formerly established Church in Wales or Church of Ireland, ceased to apply from 1888.
The word town can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town — a large one, with a certain status. For example, Greater London is a city, but is sometimes referred to affectionately as "London town". (The "City of London" is the historical nucleus, informally known as the "Square Mile", and is a London borough in its own right, the City of Westminster is also a city and London borough). Also, going from the suburbs to central London is to "go into town".
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In the United States of America, the meaning of the term town varies from state to state. In some states, a town is an incorporated municipality, that is, one with a charter received from the state, similar to a city (see incorporated town). In others, a town is unincorporated.
The types of municipalities in U.S. states include cities, towns, boroughs, villages, and townships (in the sense of Pennsylvania townships and New Jersey townships; for the meaning in other states, see civil township), although most states do not have all five types. Many states do not use the term "town" for incorporated municipalities. In some states, for example Wisconsin, "town" is used in the same way that civil township is used in elsewhere. In other states, such as Michigan, the term "town" has no official meaning and is simply used informally to refer to a populated place, whether incorporated or not.
In the six New England states, a town is a municipality and a more important unit than the county. In Connecticut, Rhode Island and 7 out of 14 counties in Massachusetts, in fact, counties only exist as map divisions and have no legal functions; in the other three states, counties are primarily judicial districts, with other functions primarily in New Hampshire and Vermont. In all six, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a town meeting and a board of selectmen serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council. For example, Brookline, Massachusetts is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.
In New York, a town is similarly a division of the county, but with less importance than in New England. Of some importance is the fact that, in New York, a town provides a closer level of governance than its enclosing county, providing almost all municipal services to unincorporated areas, called hamlets and selected services to incorporated areas, called villages. In New York, a town typically contains a number of such hamlets and villages. However, due to the independent nature of Incorporated Villages, they may exist in two towns or even two counties. Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation or a city lives in a town and possibly in one of the town's hamlets or villages. (Some other states have similar entities called townships.) In New York, "town" is essentially short for "township."
In Pennsylvania, there is only one municipality which is incorporated as a "town": Bloomsburg. Most of the rest of the state is incorporated as townships (there are also boroughs and cities), which function in much the same way as the towns of New York or New England, although they may have different forms of government.
In Virginia, a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population), but while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within a county.
In Nevada, a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as land use planning and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this "semi-incorporated" status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated cities, and towns as large as Paradise (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the Las Vegas Strip. Most county seats are also towns, not cities.
In Arizona the terms "town" and "city" are largely interchangeable. A community may incorporate under either a town or a city organization with no regard to population or other restrictions according to Arizona law (see Arizona Revised Statutes, Title 9). Cities may function under slightly differing governmental systems, such as the option to organize a district system for city governments, but largely retain the same powers as towns. Arizona law also allows for the consolidation of neighboring towns and the unification of a city and a town, but makes no provision for the joining of two adjacent cities.
In California, the words "town" and "city" are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code Secs. 34500-34504). There are two types of city in California - charter and general law. Cities organised as charter cities derive their authority from a charter that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Government Code Sections 34500-34504 applies to cities organised as general law cities, which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)." Some cities change their minds as to how they want to be called. The sign in front of the municipal offices in Colma, California, for example, reads "City of Colma", but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was build read "Town of Colma." There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the "City of Colma" while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the "Town of Colma." Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California, either in colloquial speech or as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word "town" is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word "town" as shorthand for "township", which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.
According to the 2006 United States Census Hempstead, New York (western most Township in Long Island, New York) is the largest town in the United States. The town of Hempstead has a population of over 760,000 people, making it larger than San Francisco, Boston, or Seattle.
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بازرگانی
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چه کنیم تا همیشه خوش اندام بمانیم ؟
حتما دیده اید که بسیاری از افراد چاق با رژیم های سخت و کوتاه مدت اقدام به کاهش وزن سریع می کنند و پس از مدتی دچار ضعف و ناتوانی ، بیماری های دستگاه گوارش و حتی گاهی بیماری های روانی می شوند و با ادعای اینکه " ضعیف شده ام ، رژیم به من نمی سازد" شروع به پرخوری مجدد کرده و به حالت اولیه یا شاید بدتر بازمی گردند .
چرا این افراد دچار چنین حالتی می شوند ؟ و چاره آن چیست ؟
انجمن رژیم آمریکا بیان کرده است ، افراد چاق عموماً وزن ایده آلی را در نظر می گیرند که رسیدن به آن عملاً غیر ممکن است ! فرد چاق زود خسته می شود و کنار می کشد ولی هدفی که توسط یک رژیم شناس ارائه می شود دست یافتنی است .
خانمها تمایل زیادی به خوش اندام بودن و رژیم گرفتن دارند . در سال 1992 طبق آماری از ایالات متحده ، 40 درصد خانمها در حال رژیم بودند . نکته مهم اینجاست که هدف از رژیم گرفتن رسیدن به ثبات وزنی و الگوی مناسب زندگی است . شما با رژیم لاغری اقدام به کاهش وزن می کنید و با تغییر الگوی زندگی به حفظ این وزن می پردازید . فردی که رژیم می گیرد باید بداند رویه غذایی که تاکنون داشته است غلط بوده ، اگر آزادانه از انواع شیرینی می خورده ، بدون اندازه گیری روغن مصرف می کرده و از هرچه در دسترس داشته می خورده است یعنی در واقع حدی برای غذا خوردن نداشته ، اینها همه غلط است . میزان انرژی مورد نیاز و مواد غذایی که باید به فرد برسد با یک رژیم سالم تعیین می شود که باید الگوی همیشگی فرد برای غذا خوردن باشد نه فقط برای کاهش وزن !
با کاهش وزن ، فرد هم توده چربی بدن خود را از دست می دهد هم توده عضلانی ؛ رژیمهای کوتاه مدت موجب هدر رفتن سریع توده عضلانی خصوصاً عضلات دستگاه گوارش می شود و فرد دچار سوء هاضمه می گردد ، برای جلوگیری از کاهش توده عضلانی در حد امکان ، توصیه می شود سالانه تنها اقدام به کاهش 10 درصد از وزن خود بکنید یعنی اگر یک فرد 70 کیلو گرمی هستید بهترین و سالم ترین میزان کاهش وزن برای شما 7 کیلوگرم در سال می باشد .
توصیه های حفظ وزن
1- برای حفظ وزن کاهش یافته باید شیوه زندگی خود را تغییر دهید و آنرا بر اساس یک رژیم غذایی مناسب پایه ریزی کنید .
2- یک برنامه ورزشی منظم را که مناسب وضعیت جسمیتان است ، دنبال کنید .
3- از استرس های خود بکاهید .
4- از راهنمایی های غذایی (که پیشتر در بخش هرم ذکر شد) تا حد امکان پیروی کنید .
5- از مصرف غذاهایی که با آرد سفید و شکر افزوده تهیه شده مثل انواع شیرینی و غذاهای پرچربی پرهیز کنید .
منبع: http://www.iranmania.com/nutrition/dietrecipes/fitness/fitandstrong.asp
لینک های پرواز در آسمان
سازمان هواپیمایی کشور http://www.cao.ir/
هواپیمایی جمهوری اسلامی ایران http://www.iranair.com/
پورتال ایران در اینترنت http://www.iran.ir
هواپیمایی ماهان http://www.mahan.aero/
هواپیمایی آسمان http://www.iaa.ir/
هواپیمایی کیش ایر لاین http://www.kishairline.com/
شرکت هواپیمایی و توریستی ایران ایر تورز http://www.iranairtours.com/
شرکت هسا ،تولید کننده داخلی هواپیما http://www.hesaco.com/
شرکت هواپیمایی سفیران http://www.safiran.org/en/index.aspx/
شرکت صنایع هوایی ایران http://www.aii-co.com/
لینک دانشگاه ها و دانشکده های کشاورزی ومنابع طبیعی
موسسه آموزش عالی جهاد دانشگاهی
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زنجبیل
Ginger
زنجبیل اصالتاً یک گیاه چینی و هندی است و در این کشورها در طول بیشتر از 4000 سال در پخت و پز غذا مصرف شده است. از آنجا که مردم علاقه وافری به طعم تند و بوی معطر آن داشته اند و نوعی خاصیت گرمایی داشته و برای درمان درد معده مؤثر بوده است، کاشفان و جهانگردان در سرتاسر نقاط گرمسیری آن را کشت داده اند. ریشه این گیاه در درمان سرگیجه، تعریق، تهوع و استفراغ ناشی از بیماریهای حرکتی یا دریازدگی مؤثر واقع میشود. این گیاه همچنین گلودرد، سردردها، پاره ای از انواع دردهای قاعدگی و آرتریت و تب و درد ناشی از انواع سرماخوردگیها و آنفلونزا را درمان می کند.
معرفی گیاه
ساقه های ریشه دار زنجبیل عبارت از دکمه ای به هم پیچیده، ضخیم و قهوه ای روشن است که می توانید از بازار محلی نیز آنرا تهیه کنید. از آنجا که زنجبیل نوعی گیاه زیرزمینی است لذا ساقة ریشه دار این گیاه بخشی از ساقه اصلی است که برحسب انفاق در زیرزمین رشد و نمو پیدا می کند. ریشه اصلی این گیاه از گره های موجود روی ساقه های ریشه دار آن نمو می کند. بالای سطح زمین ساقه های 12 اینچی دارای برگهای طولانی، باریک، کج و معوج و سبز با گلهای سفید و سبز مایل به زرد قرار دارد.
ترکیبات گیاه
فرآورده های حاصله از زنجبیل از ریشه تازه یا خشک آن یا از طریق تقطیر روغن از ساقه آن تهیه میشود.
اشکال موجود
پس از قطع ساقة ریشه دار این گیاه، مواد شیمیایی فعال موجود در گیاه از قبیل "زینجیبرن"، "بنزابولن"، "جینجرول"، "شوقول" خاصیت ذاتی خود را از دست می دهند. شرکتهای دست اندرکار و فعال در زمینه فرآورده های گیاهی، زنجبیل را به صورت عصاره، تنتور، انواع کپسول یا روغن آن عرضه می کنند تا از زایل شدن این مواد شیمیایی جلوگیری شود. بنابراین فرآورده هایی را مصرف کیند که به وضوح در برچسب خودش میزان زنجبیل مورد مصرف شما را ذکر کرده باشد.
می توانید ریشه زنجبیل تازه را نیز بخرید، و با دکم کردن تکه های آن به اندازه نصب کف دست یا با نصف قاشق چیاخوری دکمه رنده شده، شسته شده و پوست دار در آب گرم یا با ریختن نیم لیتر آب جوش روی 30 گرم ساقه ریشه دار، چای زنجبیل درست و مصرف کنید. برای اینکار بگذارید چای مورد نظر به مدت 15 دقیقه دم بکشد و سپس روزانه دو لیوان از آنرا میل کنید. دیگر منبع مناسب تهیه زنجبیل همانا زنجبیل کریستال شده است. لیکن فریب لایه پوششی قندی آن را نخورید. چون زنجبیل کریستال شده مزة تندی دارد.
نحوه مصرف
نحوه مصرف فرآورده های زنجبیل به سلیقه شخصی شما و آنچه شما را آزار می دهد، بستگی دارد. در کل، نباید روزانه بیشتر از دو تا چهار گرم زنجبیل مصرف کنید، چرا که علاوه بر میزان زنجبیلی که مصرف می کنید ممکن است مقداری از این ماده را نیز از طریق برنامه غذایی (یعنی از موادی نظیر آبجو زنجبیل، نان شیرینی زنجبیل دار، نان زنجبیل دار یا مواد غذایی مخلوط و سرخ شده) جذب کنید. اگر زنجبیل تازه مصرف می کنید، حتماً مقدار مصرفی را وزن کنید تا تقریباً دریابید که چه حدی از آن معادل 2 تا 4 گرم است.
برای درمان، تهوع، گاز معده یا سوء هاضمه روزانه 2 تا 4 گرم ریشه تازه (معادل 0/25 تا 1 گرم پودر ریشه) یا 1/5 تا 3 میلی لیتر تنتور آنرا مصرف کنید.
برای پیشگیری از استفراغ، هر 4 ساعت یک گرم پودر زنجبیل (نصف قاشق چایخوری) یا معادل آن یا روزانه سه بار دو عدد کپسول زنجبیل(یک گرم) مصرف کنید. البته می توانید یک تکه 8 گرمی زنجبیل تازه را نیز بجوید.
برای بیماریهای ناشی از سرماخوردگی، تب ناشی از آنفلونزا، گلودرد، گرفتگیهای ناشی از قاعدگی یا سردرد، دو قاشق غذاخوری از دم کرده زنجبیل یا چندین ورق از ساقه ریشه دار تازه آنرا بخور دهید. برای درمان درد ورم مفاصل از آب، عصاره یا چای زنجبیل تازه به میزان روزانه 4 گرم مصرف کنید یا روغن آنرا روی مفصل دردناک بمالید یا ریشه تازه آنرا در ضماد داغ یا گازهای ضمادی قرار دهید و روی نقاط دارای درد بگذارید.
نکات احتیاطی
انجمن فرآورده های گیاهان دارویی آمریکا ریشه زنجبیل تازه را از نظر درجه بندی سلامتی و بی خطری در ردیف اول قرار داده است لذا زنجبیل گیاهی بی خطر و وسیع الطیف است. با این وجود میزان تجویزی آن باید رعایت شود. انجمن آمریکایی مذکور ریشه زنجبیل خشک را در مرتبة دوم سلامتی و بی خطری قرار داده است و توصیه می کند که از مصرف آن در طول بارداری اجتناب گردد.
برخی از زنان برای رهایی از علایم بیماری صبح دم از زنجبیل استفاده می کنند لیکن مصرف زنجبیل برای این هدف بحث انگیز است. برای رعایت اصول ایمنی و سلامتی هرگز نباید بیش از میزان معمولی آن مصرف گردد. زنجبیلی که به عنوان بخشی معمولی از برنامه غذایی فرد مصرف می شود بی خطر تلقی می شود.
اگر از سنگ صفرا رنج می برید، از مصرف زنجبیل بپرهیزید. هر چند که مصرف زنجبیل معمولاً فاقد عوارض جانبی است، اما مصرف بیش از حد آن می تواند سبب گرمازدگی جزیی گردد.
تداخل های احتمالی
اگر داروهای تهیه شده از سیر یا داروهای ضد انعقادی نظیر وارفارین یا داروهای مربوط به درمان دیابت مصرف می کنید و می خواهید جهت پیشگیری از بیماری مسافرت، سرگیجه، میگرن، گرفتگیهای رحمی یا ورم مفاصل زنجبیل مصرف کنید، ابتدا با پزشک خود مشورت کنید. هر چند هیچ مطالعه ای تداخل این گیاه دارویی را با سایر داروها نشان نداده است، لیکن این خطر وجود دارد که زنجبیل اثرات برخی از این داروها را خنثی و یا تشدید کند.
منبع: http://www.iranems.com/PHARMA/herbs/ginger.htm
تریپس گندم
با نام علمی Haplothrips Tritici، که «بال ریشکدار گندم» نیز خوانده میشود، یکی از آفات مهم مکنده گندم است. حشره کامل این آفت از سایر تریپسها بزرگتر و طول آن حدود ۲ میلیمتر است. رنگ عمومی بدن آن قهوهای تیره یا سیاه یکنواخت، ساق و پنجه پاها و بند میانی شاخکها به رنگ قهوهای روشن است. پورهها زرد متمایل به قرمز و فقط سر، پاها و حلقه آخر شکم سیاه است. تخمها لوبیاییشکل، سفید و به قطر ۴/۰ میلیمتر است. این حشره تابستان را به صورت پوره سن ۲ در عمق ۵ سانتیمتری و زمستان را در عمق ۲۰ سانتیمتری خاک اطراف ریشه و طوقه گندمهای سال قبل سپری میکند. در اواخر زمستان و اوایل بهار لاروهای زمستانگذرانی به سطح خاک آمده و پس از مدتی حضور در کاه و کلش موجود در سطح مزرعه، روی علفهای هرز دوره زندگی خود را کامل میکنند.
تریپس گندم را بیشتر در لابهلای غلاف برگ، محل اتصال برگ به ساقه و یا لابهلای خوشهها میتوان مشاهده کرد.تریپس علاوه بر گندم به جو، چاودار، یولاف و برخی علفهای هرز گیاهان نیز حمله میکند. با تشکیل خوشههای گندم جمعیت تریپس در روی آنها نیز افزایش یافته و با تغذیه از دانههای نرم موجب چروکیدگی و توقف رشد آنها میشود. علایم خسارت روی برگ بهصورت پیچیدگی و ایجاد لکههای نقرهای ظاهر میشود. شخم عمیق تا ۹۰ درصد تریپسها را که در داخل خاک مزرعه زمستانگذرانی میکنند، ازبین میبرد. از آنجایی که ظهور حشرات کامل و سپس لاروها همزمان با برنامه مبارزه با سن گندم است، سمپاشی مزارع علیه سن گندم روی تریپس نیز موثر خواهد بود. در مناطقی که علیه سن گندم سمپاشی نمیشود، خسارت تریپس چشمگیر است.
در ایران از سمنان، اصفهان، کرمان، یزد، اهواز گزارش شدهاست و احتمالاً در تمام نقاط ایران انتشار دارد.
منبع
ماهنامه ترویجی سبزینه شماره چهارم {اجازه نامه}
http://www.sabzineh.org/news/4/kashte_gandom_bad_az_zorat.pdf